Perencanaan Manajemen dasar dan bisnis

Perencanaan

Manajemen dasar dan bisnis

Setiap organisasi perlu melakukan suatu perencanaan dalam setap kegiatan organisasinya, baik erencanaan produksi, perencanaan rekrutmen karyawan baru, program penjualan produk baru, maupun perencanaan anggarannya. Perencanaan(planning) merupakan proses dasar bagi organisasi untuk memilih sasaran dan menetapkan bagaimana cara mencapainya. Oleh karena itu, perusahaan harus menetapkan tujuan dan sasaran yang hendak dicapai sebelum melakukan prosesproses perencanaan.

Perencanaan diperlukan dan terjadi dalam berbagai bentuk organisasi, sebab perencanaan ini merupakan proses dasar manajemen di dalam mengambil suatu keputusan dan tindakan. Perencanaan diperlukan dalam jenis kegiatan baik itu kegiatan oranisasi, perusahaan maupun kegiatan di masyarakat, dan perencanaan ada dalam setiap fungsi-fungsi manajemen, karena fungsi-fungsi tersebut hanya dapat melaksanakan keputusan-keputusan yang telah ditetapkan dalam perencanaan.

Perencanaan merupakan tahapan paling penting dari suatu fungsi manajemen, terutma dalam menghadapi lingkungan eksternal yangberubah dinamis. Dalam era globalisasi ini, perencanaan harus lebih mengandalkan prosedur yang rasional dan sistematis dan bukan hanya pada intuisi dan firasat (dugaan).

Pokok pembahasan pada makalah ini berfokus pada elemen-elemen tertentu dari proses perencanaan dan proses yang sangat berhubungan dengan pemecahan masalah dan pengambilan keputusan. Kemudian memperkenalkan konsep perencanaan dan menyajikan sejumlah pendekatan untuk mengefektifkan perencanaan dari berbagai jenis.

Dalam manajemen, perencanaan adalah proses mendefinisikan tujuan organisasi, membuat strategi untuk mencapai tujuan itu, dan mengembangkan rencana aktivitas kerja organisasi. Perencanaan merupakan proses terpenting dari semua fungsi manajemen karena tanpa perencanaan fungsi-fungsi lain pengorganisasian, pengarahan, dan pengontrolan tak akan dapat berjalan.

 Pengertian

Perencanaan secara garis besar diartikan seagai proses mendefinisikan tujuan organisasi, membuat strategi untuk mencapai tujuan itu, dan mengembangkann rencana aktivitas kerja organisasi. Pada dasarnya yang dimaksud perencanaan yaitu memberi jawaban atas pertanyaan-pertanyaan apa (what), siapa (who), kapan(when), dimana (where), mengapa (why), dan bagaimana (how). Jadi perencanaan yaitu fungsi seorang manajer yang berhubungan dengan pemilihan dari sekumpulan kegiatan-kegiatan dan pemutusan tujuan-tujuan, kebijaksanaan-kebijaksanaan serta programprogram yang dilakukan. Perencanaan merupakan proses terpenting dari semua fungsi manajemen karena tanpa perencanaan berjalan. Rencana dapat berupa rencana informal atau secara formal. Rencana informal adalah rencana yang tidak tertulis dan bukan merupakan tujuan bersama anggota suatu organisasi. Sedangkan rencana formal adalah rencana tertulis yang harus dilaksanakan suatu organisasi dalam jangka waktu tertentu. Rencana formal adalah merupakan bersama anggota korporasi, artinya setiap anggota harus mengetahui dan menjalankan rencana itu. Rencana formal dibuat untuk mengurangi ami guitar dan menciptakan kesepahaman tentang apa yang harus dilakukan.

Dalam sebuah perencanaan terdapat unsur-unsur perencanaan. Perencanaan yang baik harus dapat menjawab enam pertanyaan yang disebut sebagai unsurunsur perencanaan. Unsur pertama adalah tindakan apa yang harus dikerjakan, kedua ada sebabnya rindakan tersebut harus dilakukan, ketiga dimana tindakan tersebut dilakukan, keempat kapa tindakan tersebut dilakukan, kelima siapa yang akan melakukan tindakan tersebut, dan yang terakhir bagaimana cara melaksanakan tindakan tersebut.

Perencanaan sangat penting dan perlu untuk setiap usaha mencapai tujuan. Alasan ini didasarkan pada suatu pandangan bahwa kondisi masa depan tidaklah pasti. Lingkungan yang berubah begitu cepat menuntut siapa pun baik perseorangan maupun lembaga untuk selalu membuat rencana. Tanpa membuat perencanaan, organisasi akan kehilangan arah dan sulit untuk mengantisipasi ancaman perubahan lingkungan.

Banyak faktor yang mempengaruhi pentingnya pembuatan suatu perencanaan antara lain; perubahan ekonomi, kemajuan teknologi, perubahan iklim, perubahan selera konsumen, gejolak politik, dan sistem keamanaan yang tidak terjamin memberikan banyak tantangan yang harus dihadapi walaupun penuh dengan resiko.

Selain untuk lebih memantapkan arah bagi organisasi dalam mencapai tujuannya, perencanaan juga memiliki peranan penting lainnya, seperti:

a)   Untuk mengkooordinasikan usaha-usaha

Didalam suatu organisasi pekerjaan-perkerjaan dilakukan individu dan kelompok yang memiliki tujuan dan kepentingan yang berbeda-beda. Maka perlu dilakukan koordinasi, agar tujuan dan kepentingan itu tidak keluar dari tujuan organisasi.

b)   Untuk mengatasi perubahan

Dengan adanya perencanaan yang matang maka perubahan-perubahan potensial yang akan terjadi akan dapat diantisipasi secepat mungkin.

c)    Untuk pengembangan manajer

Manajer harus bertindak proaktif dan membuat hal-hal terjadi dan bukan sebaliknya, bertindak rekatif dan membiarkan hal-hal terjadi. Tindakan perencanaan akan mempertajam kemampuan manajer untuk berfikir ketika mereka mempertimbangkan gagasan-gagasan abstrak dan kemungkinan-kemungkinan yang akan terjadi.

d)   Untuk pengembangan standar kinerja

Keberhasilan yang dicapai pada masa lalu akan menjadi standar kinerja untuk masa yang akan datang. Tanpa perencanaan, standar performa mungkin menjadi tidak rasional dan subjektif.

Fungsi perencanaan dan fungsi-fungsi serta kegiatan-kegiatan manajerial lainnya adalah saling berhubungan, saling tergantungdan berinteraksi.

– Pengorganisasian dan penyusunan personalia

Pengorganisasian adalah proses pengaturan kerja bersama sumber daya-sumber daya keuangan, phisik dan manusia dalam organisasi. Perencanaan menunjukan cara dan menunjukan sumber daya-sumber daya tersebut untuk mencapai efektivitas paling tinggi.

– Pengarahan

Fungsi pengarahan selalu berkaitan dengan perencanaan. Perencanaan menentukan kombinasi yang paling baik dari faktor-faktor, kekuatan-kekuatan, sumber daya-sumber daya dan hubungan-hubungan yang di perlukan untuk mengarahkan dan memotivasi karyawan.

– Pengawasan

Perencanaan dan pengawasan saling berhubungan sangat erat, sehingga sering d sebut sebagai “kembar siam” dalam manajemen. Pengawasan adalah penting sebagai produk perencanaan efektif. Oleh karena itu, pengawasan bertindak sebagai kriteria penilaian pelaksanaan kerja terhadap rencana. Tujuan setiap rencana adalah untuk membantu sumber daya dalam kontribusinya secara positif terhadap pencapaian tujuan dan sasaran organisasi.

 Macam-Macam Perencanaan

Macam-macam perencanaan dalam pengantar manajemen dibagi menjadi 2 yaitu :

Perencanaan organisasi

Perencanaan ini terdiri dari:

1. Perencanaan strategis

Rencana strategis yaitu rencana yang dikembangkan untuk mencapai tujuan strategis. Tepatnya, rencana strategis adalah rencana umum yang mendasari keputusan alokasi sumber daya, prioritas, dan langkah-langkah tindakan yang diperlukan untuk mencapai tujuan strategis.

1. Perencanaan taktis

Adalah rencana ditujukan untuk mencapai tujuan taktis, dikembangkan untuk mengimplementasikan bagian tertentu dari rencana strategis. Rencana strategis pada umumnya melibatkan manajemen tingkat atas dan menegah dan jika dibandingkan dengan rencana strategis, memiliki jangka waktu yang lebih singkat dan suatu fokus yang lebih spesifik dan nyata

1. Perencanaan operasional

Adalah rencana yang menitikberatkan pada perencanaan rencana taktis untuk mencapai tujuan operasional. Dikembangkan oleh manajer ingkat menegah dan tingkat bawah, rencana operasional memiliki fokus jangka pendek dn lingkup yang relatif lebih sempit. Masing-masing rencana operasional berkenaan dengan suatu rangkaian kecil aktivitas. Kami menjelaskan perencanaan dengan lebih mendekati pada bagian selanjutnya.

Perencanaan operasional dibagi menjadi 2 yaitu :

1. Rencana sekali pakai  :  dikembangkan untuk melaksanakan serangkaian tindakan yang mungkin tidak berulang di masa mendatang

Program                              :  rencana sekali pakai untuk seragkaian aktivitas yang besar

Proyek                                :  rencana sekali pakai untuk lingkup yang lebih sempit dan lebih tidak kompleks dibandingkan dengan program

1. Rencana tetap                     :  dikembangkan untuk aktivitas yang berulang secara teratur selama suatu periode waktu tertentu

Kebijakan                          :  rencana tetap yang merinci respons umum organisasi terhadap suatu masalah atau situasi tertentu

Prosedur operasi standar    :  rencana tetap yang menguraikan langkah-langkah yang harus diikuti dalam situasi tertentu

Aturan dan peraturan          :  rencana tetap yang mendeskripsikan dengan tepat bagaimana aktivitas tertentu dilaksanakan

Kerangka Waktu Perencanaan

1. Rencana Jangka Panjang

Suatu rencana jangka panjang (long-range plan) meliputi banyak tahun, mungkin bahkan beberapa dekade.

2. Rencana jangka Menengah

Suatu rencana yang agak bersifat sementara dan lebih mudah berubah dibanding rencana jangka panjang. Rencana jangka menengah biasanya meliputi periode satu hingga lima tahun dan terutama penting bagi manajer menengah dan manajer lini.

3. Rencana jangka Pendek

Seorang manajer juga mengembangkan suatu rencana jangka pendek, yang memiliki kerangka waktu satu tahun atau kurang. Rencana jangka pendek (short-range plan) sangat mempengaruhi aktivitas seharihari manajer. Terdapat dua jenis rencana jangka pendek. Rencana tindakan (action plan) merealisasikan semua jenis rencana. Ketika sebuah pabrik Nissan siap untuk mengganti teknologinya, manajernya memusatkan perhatian mereka pada penggantian peralatan yang ada dengan peralatan baru secepat mungkin dan seefisien mungkin untuk meminimalkan hilangnya waktu produksi. Dalam banyak kasus, hal ini dapat dilakukan dalam beberapa bulan, dan produksi hanya terhenti selama beberapa minggu. Dengan demikian, suatu rencana tindakan mengkoordinasikan berbagai perubahan aktual pada suatu pabrik tertentu. Sebaliknya rencana reaksi (reaction plan) adalah rencana yang dirancang untuk membuat perusahaan dapat bereaksi terhadapa situasi yang tak terduga. Di salah satu pabrik Nissan, peralatan baru tiba lebih awal dari yang diharapkan dan manajer pabrik harus menutup produksi lebih cepat dari yang mereka perkirakan. Oleh karena itu, manajer tersebut harus bereaksi terhadap kejadian yang berada di luar kendali mereka dalam cara yang masih memungkinkan tercapainya tujuan.

4. Operasi Sistem

Seperangkat komponen yang saling bergantungan dengan ruang lingkup, keterkaitan dan stabilitas yang relative tinggi.
a. Produksi: aktivitas yg ditunjukkan untuk menerima lingkungan, seperti pertanian, khutanan, perikanan, pertambangan, serta pengolahan.
b. Alokasi: aktivitas yg ditunjukkan pada distribusi barang & jasa di antara setiap anggota sistem, termasuk fungsi transportasi, komunikasi, kegiatan penjualan eceran, grosir.
c. Pengendalian: aktivitas bertujuan memelihara kelancaran jalannya fungsi sistem itu sendiri.
d. Penyusunan staf: terpusat pada jumlah & kualitas anggota sistem, sosialisasi & pendidikan dari para anggota sistem, keahlian yg dapat mereka berikan, serta kesehatan fisik & mental,termasuk tipe rekreasi hiburan karyawan

5. Perubahan Sistem
   a. Rasionalisme: apabila tujuan akhir telah dirumuskan dgn jelas & dipahami dgn baik, perencanaan dpt mengikuti model rasional. Bermanfaat di bidang teknik tertentu & kesehatan masyarakat.
   b. Inkrementalisme: pengambilan keputusan dalam keadaan sebaris langkah-langkah inkrementasl yg kecil (pertambahan sedikit demi sedikit), menuju masa yg akan datang & ke arah yg tidak diketahui pasti. Contohnya: pilot project.
   c. Utopianisme: pandangan ini berusaha membangkitkan imajinasi masyarakat & memecahkan setiap masalah dgn mengusulkan penghapusan pendekatan baru ke dalam sistem organisasi & operasi.
   d. Metodism: menjelaskan bahwa perusahaan sudah memiliki metode perencanaan yg jelas tetapi hasil akhir yg akan dicapai belum ditetapkan & tidak dimengerti sama sekali .

6.      Efetivitas Perencanaan

Masalanya adalah bukan bagaimana melakukan pekerjaan dengan benar tetapi manager, seringkali dalam

pengembangkan perencanaan yang efektif manager mengalami hambatan.

Terdapat dua hambatan utama terhadap pengembanganrencana yang efektif

1. Penolakan dari dalam diri perencana terhadap penentu tujuan dan pembuatan rencana untuk memecakannya.
2. Keengganan yang lazim dari para anggota organisasi untuk menerima rencana karena perubahan yang akan ditimbulkannya

Tanggung Jawab untuk Menetapkan Tujuan Perencanaan

1. Staf Perencanaan

Khususnya staf perencanaan dapat mengurangi bban kerja manajer individual, membantu mengkoordinasikan aktivitas perencanaan manajer individual, membawa berbagai alat dan teknik yang berbeda untuk menyelesaikan masalah tertentu, berwawasan yang lebih luas dibanding manajer individual, dan melangkah jauh melmpaui proyek dan departemen tertentu.

2. Satuan Tugas Perencanaan

Organisasi terkadang menggunakan satuan tugas untuk membantumengembangkan rencana. Satuan tugas semacam itu seringkali terdiri dari manajer lini dengan suatu minat khusus dalam bidang perencanaan yang relevan.

3. Dewan Direksi

Dewan direksi (board of directors) bertugas menetapkan misi dan strategi perusahaan. Di beberapa perusahaan, dewan tersebut erperan aktif dalam proses perencanaan. Di CBS, misalnya, dewan direksi biasanya berperan dalam perencanaan. Di perusahaan lain, dewan memilih seorang eksekutif kepala yang kompeten dan mendelegasikan perencanaan kepada individu tersebut.

4. Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

Chief Executive Officer (CEO) biasanya presiden direktur atau ketua dari dewan direksi. CEO mungkin individu tunggal yang paling penting dalam setiap proses perencanaan organisasi. CEO memainkan suatu peran utama dalam menyelesaikan proses perencanaan dan bertanggung jawab untuk mengimplementasikan strateggi. Dewan dan CEO kemudian berperan langsung dalam perencanaan. Komponen organisisional lain yang terlibat dalam proses perencanaan memiliki peran sebagai penasihat atau konsultan.

5. Komite Executive

Komite eksekutif (executive commitee) biasanya terdiri dari eksekutif puncak dalam organisasi yang bekerja sama sebagai suatu kelompok. Anggota komite eksekutif seringkali dibebankan pada berbagai staf komite, subkomite, dan satuan tugas untuk berkonsentrasi pada proyek tertentu atau masalah yang mungkin dihadapi seluruh organisasi pada suatu waktu di masa depan.

6. Manajemen Lini

Komponen terakhir dari sebagian besar aktivitas perencaanaan organisasi adalah manajemen lini (line management). Manajer lini adalah orang yang memiliki otoritas formal dan tanggung jawab untuk manajemen organisasi. Mereka memainkan suatu peran penting dalam proses perencanaan oranisasi karena dua alasan. Pertama, mereka merupakan sumber informasi berharga dari dalam organisasi untuk manajer lain etika rencana diformulasikan dan diimplementasikan. Kedua, manajer lini di tingkat menengah Dn rendah dari organisasi biasanya harus melaksanakan rencana yang dikembangkan oleh manajemen puncak. Manajemen lini mengidentifikasikan, menganalisis, dan merekomendasikan alternatif program, membuat anggaran, dan mengajukannya untuk disetujui, dan akhirnya melaksanakan rencana.

Perencanaan kontinjensi

Jenis perencanaan lain yang juga penting adalah perencanaan kontinjensi (contingency planning) yaitu penentuan serangkaian tindakan alternatif jika suatu rencana tindakan secara tidak terduga tergganggu atau dianggap tidak sesuai lagi.

Hambatan dalam Penetapan dan Tujuan dan Perencanan

1. Tujuan yang Tidak Tepat

Tujuan yang tidak tepat mempunyai banyak bentuk. Membayar deviden yang besar kepada pemegang saham mungkin tidak jika dananya didapatkan dengan mengorbankan penelitian dan pengembangan tujuan mungkin juga tidak tepat jika tujuan tersebut tidak dapat dicapai. Jika Kmart menetapkan tujuan untuk memperoleh lebih bayak pendapatan dibanding Wal-Mart tahun depan, karyawan perusahaan mungkin. Tujuan juga tidak tepat jika tujuan itu menepatkan terlalu banyak penekanan pada ukuran kuantitatif maupun kalitatif dari keberhasilan.

1. Sistem Penghargaan yang Tidak Tepat

Dalam beberapa lingkungan, sistem penghargaan yang tidak tepat merupakan hambatan dalam penetapan tujuan dan perencanaan

1. Lingkungan yang Dinamis dan Kompleks

Sifat dari suatu lingkungan organisasi juga merupakan hambatan bagi penetapan tujuan dan perencanaan yang efektif. Perubahan yang cepat, inovasi teknologi, dan persaingan yang ketat juga dapat meningkatkan kesulitan bagi suatu organisasi untuk secara akurat mengukur kesempatan dan ancaman di masa mendatang

1. Keengganan untuk Menetapkan Tujuan

Hambatan lain terhadap perencanaan yang efektif adalah tujuan bagi mereka sendiri dan untuk unit-unit yang merupakan tanggung jawab mereka. Alasan untuk ini mungkin adalah kurangnya rasa percaya diri atau takut akan kegagalan. Jika seorang manajer menetapkan suatu tujuan spesifik, ringkas, dan berhubungan dengan waktu, maka apakah ia mencapai atau tidak mencapai tujuan tersebut akan tampak nyata. Manajer yang secara sadar atau tidak sadar berusaha untuk menghindari tingkat tanggung jawab ini lebih mungkin untuk menghindari usaha perencanaan organisasi. Pfizer, suatu perusahaan farmasi besar, mengalami masalah karena manajernya tidak menetapkan tujuan untuk penelitian dan pengembangan. Sebagai akibatnya, organisasi tersebut jauh tertinggal di belakang karena manajer tidak memiliki cara untuk mengetahui seberapa efektif usaha penelitian dan pengembangan mereka sebenarnya.

1. Penolakan terhadap Perubahan

Hambatan lain dalam menetapkan tujuan dan perencanaan adalah penolakan terhadap perubahan. Perencanaan pada intinya terkait dengan perubahan sesuatu dalam organisasi. Avon Products hampir membuat dirinya sendiri bangkrut beberapa tahun yang lalu karena perusahaan bersikeras melanjutkan kebijakan pembayaran deviden yang besar kepada para pemegang sahamnya. Ketika laba mulai turun, manajer menolak memotong deviden dan mulai melakukan pinjaman untuk membayar deviden tersebut. Hutang perusahaan meningkat dari $3 juta menjadi $1,1 miliar dalam waktu delapan tahun. Pada akhirnya, manajer terpaksa menyelesaikan masalah dan memotong deviden.

1. Keterbatasan

Keterbatasan (constraints) yang membatasi apa yang dapat dilakukan organisasi merupakan hambatan utama yang lain.

Mengatasi Hambatan

1. Pemahaman Maksud Tujuan dan Rencana

Salah satu cara terbaik untuk memperlancar penetapan tujuan dan proses perencanaan adalah dengan maksud dasarnya. Manajer seharusnya juga mengetahui bahwa terdapat keterbatasan pada efektivitas penetapan tujuan dan pembuatan rencana.

Dan penetapan tujuan dan perencanaan yang efektif tidak selalu memastikan keberhasilan, penyesuaian dan pengecualian diharapkan dari waktu ke waktu.

1. Komunikasi dan Partisipasi

Meskipun mungkin dibuat pada tingkat tinggi, tujuan dan rencana tersebut harus dikomunikasikan kepada pihak yang lain dalam organisasi. Setiap orang yang terlibat dalam proses perencanaan seharusnya tahu landasan apa yang mendasari strategi fungsional, dan bagaimana strategi-strategi tersebut diintegrasikan dan dikoordinasikan. Orang-orang yang bertanggung jawab untuk mencapai tujuan dan mengimplementasikan  rencana harus didengar pendapatnya dalam mengembangkan strategi tersebut. Setiap orang hampir selalu memiliki informasi yang berharga untuk disumbangkan / dan karena mereka yang akan mengimplementasikan rencana / keterlibatan mereka sangat penting orang biasanya lebih berkomitmer pada rencana yang pembentukannya mereka bantu .bahkan ketika suatu organisasi agar bersifat sentralistis atau menggunakan staf perencanaan, manajer dari berbagai tingkan dalam organisasi seharusnya dilibatkan dalam proses perencanaan.

1. Konsistensi /revsi /dan pembaruan

Tujuan seharusnya konsisten baik secara hori zontal maupun secara vertikal .konsistensi horizotal berarti bahwa tujan  seharusnya konsisten diseluru organisasi / dari satu departemen ke departemen lainnya. Konsistensi  vertikal  berarti bahwa tujuan  seharusnya konsisten  dari atas hingga ke bawah   organisasi : tujuan stategis, taktis, dan operasional harus selaras. Karena penetapan tujuan dan perencanaan merupakan proses yang dinamis, tujuan dan perencanaan juga harus direvisi dan diperbarui secara berkala. Banyak organisasi melihat perlunya merevisi dan memperbarui dengan frekuensi yang semakin sering.

1. Sistem Penghargaan yang Efektif

Secara umum, orang seharusnya diberi penghargaan baik karena menetapkan tujuan dan rencana yang efektif, maupun karena berhasil mencapainya. Karena kegagalan terkadang berasal dari faktor-faktor di luar pengendalian manajemen, orang seharusnya dipastikan bahwa kegagalan dalam mencapai tujuan tidak akan selalu memiliki konsekuensi hukuman.

Planning (Basic management and business)

Planning

Basic management and business

Every organization needs to do some planning in setap activities of the organization, either Planning for production, planning of the recruitment of new employees, new product sales programs, as well as budget planning. Planning (planning) is the basic process for organizations to select targets and define how to achieve it. Therefore, companies must establish goals and objectives to be achieved prior to the processes of planning.

Planning is required and occurs in a variety of forms of organization, because planning is a process management basis in taking decisions and actions. Planning is required in both the types of activities oranisasi activities, companies and activities in the community, and in the planning of any management functions, because these functions can only implement the decisions that have been set in the planning.

Planning is the most important phases of a management function, terutma in the face of dynamic external environment yangberubah. In this era of globalization, the planning must rely more rational and systematic procedure and not only on intuition and gut feeling (alleged).

The subject of this paper focuses on certain elements of the planning process and the process that is highly correlated with problem solving and decision making. Then introduces the concept of planning and presenting a number of approaches to streamline the planning of various types.

In the management, planning is the process of defining the organization's goals, create a strategy to achieve that goal, and develop a plan of work activities of the organization. Planning is the most important process of all management functions since no other functions of planning organizing, directing, and controlling will not be able to walk.

 Definition

Planning seagai interpreted broadly defines the objectives of the organization, create a strategy to achieve that goal, and mengembangkann plan work activities of the organization. Basically the plan is intended to give answers to the questions what (what), who (WHO), when (when), where (where), why (why), and how (how). So planning is the function of a manager associated with the selection of a set of activities and termination of the objectives, policies and programs are carried out. Planning is the most important process of all management functions because without planning run. Plans can be formal or informal plan. Informal plan is a plan that is not written and is not a member of an organization's common goals. While formal plan is a written plan of an organization that must be implemented within a certain period. Formal plan is a joint member of the corporation, meaning that each member should know and follow that plan. Formal plans were made to reduce ami guitar and mutual understanding of what to do.

In a planning further elements of planning. Good planning should be able to answer six questions are referred to as elements of planning. The first element is the action to be done, there is rindakan both must be done, the third where the act was committed, the act was done kapa fourth, fifth who will perform the action, and finally how to implement such measures.

Planning is very important and necessary for every effort to achieve the goal. The reason is based on a view that the future is uncertain conditions. Environment changing so rapidly sue anyone other individuals and institutions to always make a plan. Without planning, the organization will lose direction and it is difficult to anticipate the threat of environmental changes.

Many factors influence the importance of making a plan, among others; economic change, technological advances, climate change, changes in consumer tastes, political turmoil, and the security of the system are not guaranteed provide many challenges to be faced even if fraught with risks.

In addition to further strengthen the direction to the organization in achieving its objectives, the planning also has an important role, such as:

a) To mengkooordinasikan efforts

In an organization-job work done by individual and group goals and interests are different. It needs to be coordinated, so that the objectives and interests it is not out of the organization's goals.

b) In order to cope with change

With the careful planning, the potential changes that will occur will be anticipated as soon as possible.

c) For development manager

Managers must be proactive and make things happen and not vice versa, acting reactive and let things happen. Action plan will sharpen the ability of managers to think when they consider abstract ideas and possibilities that will happen.

d) For the development of performance standards

The success achieved in the past will become the standard of performance for the foreseeable future. Without planning, performance standards may be irrational and subjective.

Planning functions and functions as well as other managerial activities are interconnected, mutually interacting tergantungdan.

- Organizing and preparing personnel

Organizing is the process of setting up a joint working resource-financial resources, physical and human organization. Planning shows the way and shows the resources-resources to achieve the highest effectiveness.

- Briefing

Guidance function is always associated with planning. Planning determines the best combination of factors, strengths, resources-resources and relationships that need to guide and motivate employees.

- Supervision

Planning and monitoring are closely interrelated, so often d refer to as "Siamese twins" in management. Supervision is important as an effective product planning. Therefore, surveillance act as criteria to assess the implementation of the work plan. The goal of each plan is to help the resource in contributing positively to the achievement of the goals and objectives of the organization.

 Various Kinds of Planning

Various planning in the introduction of management is divided into two, namely:

Planning organizations

This plan consists of:

1. Strategic planning

The strategic plan is a plan developed to achieve strategic objectives. Precisely, the strategic plan is a general plan underlying the resource allocation decisions, priorities and action steps needed to achieve strategic goals.

1. Tactical Planning

The plan is intended to achieve tactical objectives, developed to implement a specific part of the strategic plan. The strategic plan usually involves the upper and middle-level management, and when compared with the strategic plan, have a shorter time period and a more specific focus and real

1. Operational Planning

Is a plan that focuses on planning tactical plans to achieve operational objectives. Developed by the manager ingkat middle and lower levels, the operational plan has a short-term focus dn relatively narrow scope. Each of these operational plans with respect to a small range of activities. We describe the planning with closer in the next section.

Operational planning is divided into two, namely:

1. Disposable Plan: developed to implement a series of actions that may not be repeated in the future

Program: Disposable plan to seragkaian great activity

Project: disposable plans for more limited scope and less complex than the program

1. Plan remains: was developed for regularly recurring activities during a specific time period

Policy: fixed plan detailing the organization of a common response to a particular problem or situation

Standard operating procedures: permanent plan that outlines the steps to be followed in certain situations

Rules and regulations: fixed plan that describes exactly how the specific activities carried out

Timeframe Planning

1. Long Term Plan

A long-term plan (long-range plan) covering many years, perhaps even decades.

2. Medium-term Plan

A plan that is somewhat tentative and more volatile than long-term plan. Medium-term plans typically cover a period of one to five years and is especially important for middle managers and line managers.

3. Short-term plan

A manager also developed a short-term plans, which have a time frame of one year or less. Short-term plans (short-range plan) greatly affect their daily activity manager. There are two types of short-term plans. The action plan (action plan) to realize all kinds of plans. When a factory Nissan is ready to replace the technology, managers focus their attention on the replacement of existing equipment with new equipment as soon as possible and as efficiently as possible to minimize the loss of production time. In many cases, this can be done in a few months, and only halted production for several weeks. Thus, an action plan coordinating the actual changes in a particular plant. Instead reaction scheme (reaction plan) is a plan designed to make the company can react terhadapa unexpected situations. In one factory Nissan, new equipment arrived earlier than expected and the manager of the plant must shut down production more quickly than they would expect. Therefore, the manager must react to events that are beyond their control in a way that still allows the achievement of objectives.

4. Operating System

A set of components that are interdependent with the scope, relevance and relatively high stability.

a. Production: activity which is indicated for the receiving environment, such as agriculture, khutanan, fisheries, mining, and processing.

b. Allocation: the activity of which is shown in the distribution of goods and services among all members of the system, including the functions of transportation, communications, retail sales activities, wholesale.

c. Control: aim to maintain the smooth activity of the functioning of the system itself.

d. Staffing: centered on the number and quality of the members of the system, the socialization and education of the members of the system, the expertise which they can provide, as well as physical and mental health, including the type of entertainment recreation employee

5. Change System

a. Rationalism: if the ultimate goal was formulated with clear and well understood, following the model of rational planning interchangeable. Useful in certain technical fields and public health.

b. Inkrementalisme: decision-making in the state of a line of steps that small inkrementasl (added little by little), to the days to come and the direction that is not known for sure. For example: a pilot project.

c. Utopianism: this view try to raise the public's imagination and resolve any issues with the proposed abolition of the new approach to the organization and the operating system.

d. Metodism: explains that the company already has a planning method that is clear, but the final results that will be achieved have not been determined and is not understood at all.

6. Efetivitas Planning

Masalanya is not how to do the job properly but the manager, often in

pengembangkan effective planning manager obstacles.

There are two major obstacles to effective pengembanganrencana

1. Rejection of the planners themselves against the deciding goals and making a plan for memecakannya.

2. The usual reluctance of the members of the organization to accept a plan for changes that would cause

Responsibility for Planning Goal Setting

1. Planning Staff

Especially the staff planning can reduce labor bban individual manager, helped to coordinate the activities of individual managers plan, carries a variety of different tools and techniques to solve specific problems, insightful broader than individual managers, and stepped away melmpaui specific projects and departments.

2. Planning Task Force

Organizations sometimes use a task force to membantumengembangkan plan. Such a task force often consists of a line manager with a special interest in the field of planning relevant.

3. Board of Directors

The board of directors (board of directors) is responsible for determining the mission and strategy of the company. In some companies, the board erperan active in the planning process. CBS, for instance, the board of directors usually play a role in the planning. In other companies, the board elected a competent chief executive and delegate the planning to the individual.

4. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO)

Chief Executive Officer (CEO) is usually the president or chairman of the board of directors. CEO probably the single most important individual in any organization planning process. CEO plays a major role in completing the planning process and is responsible for implementing strateggi. Board and CEO then play a direct role in the planning. Organisisional other components involved in the planning process have a role as an advisor or consultant.

5. The Executive Committee

The executive committee (Executive Committee) usually consists of top executives in the organization working together as a group. Executive committee members are often charged to various staff committees, subcommittees, and task forces to concentrate on a specific project or problem that may be encountered throughout the organization at some time in the future.

6. Management Line

The final component of the majority of activity is the management of the organization perencaanaan line (line management). Line manager is the person who has formal authority and responsibility for management of the organization. They play an important role in the planning process oranisasi for two reasons. First, they are a source of valuable information from other managers in the organization's ethics plan is formulated and implemented. Second, the line managers at lower secondary level Dn of the organization usually must implement the plan developed by top management. Line management to identify, analyze, and recommend alternative program, create a budget and submit it for approval, and finally implementing the plan.

Contingency planning

Another type of planning is also important is contingency planning (contingency planning), namely the determination of a series of alternative measures if an unexpected action plan violated or deemed no longer appropriate.

Obstacles in Establishing and Objectives and Planning

1. Purpose Inappropriate

The purpose of which is not exactly have many forms. Pay large dividends to shareholders may not if funds are obtained at the expense of research and development goals may also not be appropriate if those objectives can not be achieved. If Kmart set a goal to earn more stout than Wal-Mart's revenue next year, the company's employees as possible. The purpose is also not appropriate if the goal adjust too much emphasis on quantitative measures and kalitatif of success.

1. Award System Inappropriate

In some environments, reward systems are not exactly an obstacle in setting goals and planning

1. Dynamic and Complex Environment

The nature of an organization's environment is also an obstacle to the goal setting and effective planning. Rapid changes, technological innovations, and intense competition can also increase the difficulty for an organization to accurately measure the opportunities and threats in the future

1. Reluctance to Set Goals

Another obstacle to effective planning is the goal for themselves and for units that are their responsibility. The reason for this is probably the lack of confidence or fear of failure. If a manager set a specific goal, concise, and is associated with time, so if he reaches or does not reach that goal will seem real. Managers who consciously or unconsciously trying to avoid the level of responsibility is more likely to avoid organizational planning effort. Pfizer, a large pharmaceutical companies, having problems because managers do not set goals for research and development. As a result, the organization is far behind because the manager has no way of knowing how effective their research and development efforts actually.

1. Refusal to Change

Another obstacle in setting goals and planning is resistance to change. Planning is essentially related to change something in the organization. Avon Products almost made himself bankrupt a few years ago because the company insisted on continuing policy of large dividend payments to its shareholders. When profits began to fall, the manager refused to cut dividends and began to borrow to pay the dividend. Corporate debt increased from $ 3 million to $ 1.1 billion within eight years. In the end, the manager was forced to solve the problem and cut dividends.

1. Limitations

Limitations (constraints) which limits what can be done the organization is a major obstacle to another.

Overcoming Obstacles

1. Understanding the Purpose and Plan

One of the best ways to facilitate goal setting and planning process is basically the intent. Managers should also know that there are limitations on the effectiveness of setting goals and making a plan.

And goal setting and effective planning does not always ensure success, adjustments and exceptions are expected from time to time.

1. Communication and Participation

Although it may be made at a high level, the objectives and the plan must be communicated to the other party within the organization. Everyone involved in the planning process should know what the underlying foundation of functional strategies, and how these strategies are integrated and coordinated. People who are responsible for achieving the objectives and implementing the plan must be considered in developing the strategy. Everyone almost always have valuable information to contribute / and for those who will implement the plan / their involvement is vital people are usually more berkomitmer on the establishment plan Even when they help an organization to be centralized or use planners, managers from various tingkan in the organization should be involved in the planning process.

1. Consistency / revsi / and updates

Goals should be consistent both hori zontal and vertical .konsistensi horizotal means that tujan should be consistent diseluru organization / from one department to another. Vertical Consistency means that goals should be consistent from top to bottom of the organization: the purpose of strategic, tactical, and operational needs to be aligned. Because setting goals and planning is a dynamic process, goals and planning should also be revised and updated periodically. Many organizations see the need to revise and update frequency more often.

1. System Effective Award

In general, people should have been awarded either because the set goals and plans are effective, as well as managed to achieve it. Because failure is sometimes derived from factors outside the control of management, people should be ensured that a failure to achieve the goal will not necessarily have the consequence of punishment.

The development of management concepts

The development of management concepts

The reason why we need to study the history and development of the concept of management is to obtain a description of how management has taken place in the past. It is intended to be learned so that we can take a step better for business. Second, we can find out how it develops business management. With this study, we could look for a new theory that we can be good management and also take appropriate decisions. The latter is the order management principles that have been applied since the first can be a valuable lesson for us so that later we buses clean and could plunge the world into good management.

1. mazhab CLASSIC

Theory and provide ease of management principles in deciding something that must be done in an effective way to become a manager, and it can also be interpreted as a function of management. other than that the manager can manage an authority without the use of theory and principle, the activity goes just intuition, gut feeling and hope that the results will not give you the satisfaction of all parties.

      a) Robert Owen (1771-1858)

In the 1800s he was a manager at several cotton spinning mill in New Lanarls Scotland.

Emphasizes the role of human resources as the key to the success of the company.

Motivated by the terms and conditions of employment are inadequate, where the previous working conditions and lives of workers at that time was very bad.

b) Charles Babbage (1792-1871)

Recommends to organize the division of labor in relation to the division of labor. So that every worker can be trained in a particular skill. Each worker only required a special responsibility in accordance with his specialty.

c) Frederik W. Taylor (1856-1915)

Taylor is a popular figure scientific management, so that he gained the nickname the father of scientific management, scientific management arises because of the desire to increase productivity until he finally discovered the principles are:

• Development of actual scientific management, so that for example, the best method to perform each job can be determined.

• Selection scientifically against the workers, so that each worker may be given responsibility for tasks best suited to him

• Education and scientific development for the workforce

• Close cooperation and friendly between managers and workers.

dr) Henry L. Gantt (1861-1919)

Ideas have in common with the idea of ​​Taylor, namely:

1. The mutually beneficial cooperation between managers and employees.

2. Know the proper selection method.

3. The system of bonuses and instruction.

However Hennry refuse differential wage system. Because only a small impact on work motivation.

e) Frank B and Lillian M. Gilbreth (1868 - 1924 and 1878 - 1972)

Based on the idea of ​​the results of research on the relationship of movement and fatigue in the work. According to Frank, the movement and fatigue related. Each movement is eliminated also cause fatigue. According to Lillian, in the settings to achieve motion that can effectively reduce fatigue.

2. Classical Second Scientific Management Branch.

Pioneer of classical organization theory is Henry Fayol who lived from 1841-1925. In its efforts to develop a management science Fayol began by dividing the company into six activities each having dependency. The activity in question is:

1). Technical functions (technical), which produce and make products.

2). Commercial functions (commercial), which is to buy raw materials and sell products.

3). Financial functions (financial), ie obtaining and using capital.

4). Security functions (security), which is to protect the workforce and aktivaperusahaan.

5). Accounting functions (accounting), which record and check costs, keutungan, and debts, prepare balance sheets, and gather statistics.

6). Managerial functions (managerial)

The orientation is managerial functions, so that it defines manjemen by dividing the five functions, namely:

• Planning (planning) is charting a course of action that memungkan organization can achieve its objectives.

• Organizing (organizing) means to mobilize human resources and natural resources of the organization to realize the plan be an outcome '

• Pengkomandoan (commanditing) means giving direction to subordinates and they seek to do his job.

• Coordination (coordinating) means ensuring that the resources and activities of organizations working in harmony to achieve the expected goals.

• Control (controlling) means of monitoring (monitoring) plan to ensure that steered appropriately.

Fayol concept which states that management skills can be applied to all kinds of group activities, if other things do not change, until today increasingly important in schools, government, and other institutions. Fayol developed management principles underlying effective managerial behavior is as follows:

a) The division of labor (division of labor)

b) Authority (authority)

c) Discipline (discipline)

d) Unity of command (unity of command)

e) Unity direction (unity of direction)

f) subordinate to [private interests above the public interest (subordination of individual interests to the common goods)

g) Provision of salary (remuneration)

h) Centralized (centralization)

i) Hierarchy (hierarchy)

j) Orderly (order)

k) Justice (equity)

l) The stability of the staff (stabilty of staff)

m) Initiative (initiative)

n) Semngat corps (esprit de corps)

2.Mazhab Behaviour

In this school, an important starting point is the manager acts of human behavior. Managers should be aware that the management is not done alone, it is the manager who must lead others to do so, dedicated and high participation to accomplish these tasks. So the topics at issue in this school is a "human behavior, human relations, motivation, leadership, nature and human behavior, social psychology, communication, and human desire it."

Managers in making authority leadership should be more aware of behaviors, desires, and needs of subordinates.

The emergence of the flow of human relationships (human behavior or neoclassical) arises due to the managers discovered that the classical approach, the efficiency of production and work perfect harmony can not be realized. Often subordinates less follows the pattern of behavior that is rational in mengoprasikan job. So the discussion of "side of human behavior" in the organization is important. Some experts try to equip organizations with the view of classical sociology and psychology.

a) Munsterberg Hugo (1863-1916)

Known as the "Father of Industrial Psychology". Since 1910 his interest focused on the application of psychology in the industry, where he saw the importance of the application of behavioral science in the scientific management of the new movement. In his book Psychology and Industrial Efficien¬cy yangberjudul published in 1921, contains:

1. Best possible person, that is how to get those people who have mental qualities are best suited to the job they had to do.

2. Best Possible Work, which is in psychological condition where the output is the largest and most satisfactory can be obtained from the work of everyone.

3. Best Possible Effect, which is how a company can influence the workers can be obtained such that the best possible results from them.

b) Elton Mayo (1880-1949)

Research conducted on human behavior in the work situation at the Western Electric company (1924-1933). The research originated from the investigation hubun¬gan level of lighting in the workplace and productivity of workers. As a result, when the light conditions increase the productivity tends to increase as expected, but when the light was worse than normal productivity tends to remain elevated. Outputpun continued to rise during the lighting continues to be changed.

Elton Mayo and his research assistants Roethlishberger Fritz J. and William J. Dickson also concluded that the incentive money given does not lead to increased productivity.

Results of the study were famous "Hawthorne effect" states that the operation of the company not just because of the machine and method, but also the adjustment to the social system in order to build a complete technical system. Sympathetic supervisor will improve their work performance and workers will be harder to work when they are convinced that the management think of their welfare and special attention to them.

3. The school of Management Sciences

1. Operations Research

a) Rensis Likert

Identifies and intensive research on the four management systems.

b) Edgar Schein

Examines group dynamics within the organization.

Behavioral science theory is characterized by new insights into the behavior of individuals, social group behavior and organizational behavior.

2. Motivation Theory

a) Abraham Maslow

Develop a hierarchy of needs in the explanation of human behavior and the dynamics of the process of motivation.

b) Frederick McGregor

c) David McClelland

McClelland needs theory focuses on three needs are defined as follows:

- The need for achievement: the urge to surpass, to achieve the standards, striving for success

- The need for power: the need to make other people behave in such a way that they will not behave otherwise

- The need for affiliation: the desire to establish an interpersonal relationship that is friendly and familiar

d) Victor Vroom (1964)

Which is famous for its elaborate on the Vroom model theory can be seen from the performance factor of 3 (three) theory as follows consisting of:

1. Theory of expectancy.

According to the theory ekpektansi that could push someone's performance, namely: "expectancy someone representing an individual belief that a certain level of effort will be followed by a certain level of performance". In connection with a person's level of expectancy Craig C. Pinder (1948) in his book "Work Motivation" argues that there are several factors that affect a person's level of expectancy that is:

a. Pride

b. The success of a duty

c. Help achieved from a supervisor and the subordinate.

d. Information necessary to carry out a task

e. Good materials and good equipment to work.

2. Theory instrumentalists.

According to the instrumentalist theory that a person's belief that a particular result depends on the implementation of a specific performance level. Performance is instrumental when it led to the emergence of something else.

3. The valence theory.

Valence theory implies that the positive and negative values ​​given by the results. The third theory can be seen from the aspect of managerial and individual